ࡱ> %` (bjbj"x"x a@@L*&><N<N<8<Z=tj=(>"$>p>>@>$A8A 2444444$hXD@"@DDXFF>>,mHHHDlF8>>2HD2HH.z~~>= H0eRN<E{,~L0{GX~~4DAAhH>BTBDADADAXXGpDADADADDDD N<N<FFFFFF  PROTECTING OUR DIFFERENCES: SUBMISSION TO THE AUSTRALIAN HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSIONS CONSULTATION ON PROTECTION FROM DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND SEX AND/OR GENDER IDENTITY NOVEMBER 2010 鱨վ the Gay & Lesbian Rights Lobby Established in 1988, the NSW Gay & Lesbian Rights Lobby (GLRL) is the peak organisation for lesbian and gay rights in NSW. Our mission is to achieve legal equality and social justice for lesbians, gay men and their families. The GLRL has a strong history in legislative reform. In NSW, we led the process for the recognition of same-sex de facto relationships, which resulted in the passage of the Property (Relationships) Legislation Amendment Act 1999 (NSW) and subsequent amendments. The GLRL was also successful in campaigning for an equal age of consent in NSW for gay men in 2003 and the equal recognition of same-sex partners in federal law in 2008. The rights and recognition of children raised by lesbians and gay men have also been a strong focus in our work for over ten years. In 2002, we launched Meet the Parents, a review of social research on same-sex families. From 2001 to 2003, we conducted a comprehensive consultation with lesbian and gay parents that led to the reform recommendations outlined in our 2003 report, And Then The Bride Changed Nappies. The major recommendations from our report were endorsed by the NSW Law Reform Commissions report, Relationships (No. 113), and enacted into law under the Miscellaneous Acts Amendment (Same Sex Relationships) Act 2008 (NSW). In 2010, we successfully lobbied for amendments to remove discrimination against same-sex couples in the Adoption Act 2000 (NSW). EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Article 26 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights guarantees equality before the law and the right to non-discrimination. No Federal anti-discrimination legislation prohibits discrimination against sexuality, sex and gender diverse people despite the fact that they continue to be subject to discrimination in all aspects of daily life. In order to provide strong platform for improving the rights and protections of sexuality, sex and gender diverse people in Australia, the GLRL recommends the following: Recommendation 1: Provide a legislative framework that acknowledges the potential of simultaneous and intersecting forms of identity-based discrimination. Recommendation 2: Introduce comprehensive Federal legislation that prohibits vilification, harassment and intimidation on the basis of a persons sexual orientation, HIV/AIDS status, gender identity or expression, and intersex status. Recommendation 3: Legislation should provide for equality before the law, along the lines of s 10 of the RDA. Recommendation 4: Remove the current discriminatory language in the Marriage Act 1961 (Cth) including the current ban on the recognition of overseas under s 88EA, to allow all couples, regardless of sexual orientation or sex and/or gender identity, the right to marry. Recommendation 5: With respect to gay and lesbian people, proposed anti-discrimination legislation should use the broad terminology of sexual orientation. Terminology for legislation relating to sex and/or gender identity should be developed in consultation with transgender and intersex communities. Recommendation 6: Subsequent legislation should be amended to incorporate relationship status in gender-neutral terms to protect all non-married couples from relationship-based discrimination. Recommendation 7: Legislation should include a general prohibition against discrimination in all areas of public life, along the lines of s 9 of the RDA. Recommendation 8: All bodies in receipt of public funding should be required to comply with anti-discrimination law. Recommendation 9: All exemptions should not be permanent. Organisations and groups seeking to rely on an exemption should be required to apply for certification. This should be reviewable every few years. Recommendation 10: Organisations with exemptions should be required to publicly state their reliance on a particular exemption to improve transparency and accountability. Recommendation 11: A savings clause should be introduced to not make unlawful any activity that has a primary objective of promoting the social and cultural identity of sex, sexuality and gender diverse people. Special measures as defined in international law should be included in the legislation. Recommendation 12: Appointment of a Commissioner in the 鱨վ with responsibility for issues regarding sexual orientation, sex and gender identity. Recommendation 13: Introduction of a ministerial portfolio and appropriate secretarial support on sexual orientation, sex and/or gender identity and expression. Recommendation 14: Development of education and training programs, or cultural sensitivity workshops, for public authorities, workplaces and schools to prevent discrimination and harassment. INTRODUCTION Current federal anti-discrimination legislation prohibits discrimination on several grounds, including sex, race, ethnicity, marital status and disability. While, each state and territory has anti-discrimination laws offering protection on the grounds of sexual orientation and sex and/or gender identity, these protections are highly disparate and terminology is inconsistent. Moreover, there is no comprehensive Federal anti-discrimination protections for sexuality, sex and gender diverse people despite the fact that they continue to be subject to discrimination in all aspects of daily life. A lack of Federal protection can affect an individuals access to healthcare, the provision of goods and services, accommodation and aged care services. Although the 鱨վ (AHRC) can make recommendations in relation to complaints based on sexual orientation in employment, or discrimination by the Commonwealth or its agents, these are not enforceable. Intersex persons are not mentioned in any anti-discrimination legislative framework. In addition, a combination of exemptions and the fact that many Commonwealth laws override state laws means that sex, sexuality and gender diverse people are not afforded the same protections as virtually every other marginalised group in Australia. As a gay and lesbian organisation, we do not have the authority or experience to speak for the sex and gender diverse communities. While we strongly support the inclusion of comprehensive protections for sex and/or gender diverse persons, this paper primarily uses examples that relate to issues regarding sexual orientation. Issues regarding sex and/or gender diverse people are outlined where appropriate. CONCEPTUALISING DISCRIMINATION Discrimination on the basis of sexuality refers to treating someone, or someones associates, less favourably, on the basis of their actual or perceived sexuality. The concept is usually raised in the context of discrimination against people who are gay, lesbian or bisexual. Discrimination broadly includes harassment, vilification and general unfavourable treatment. Discrimination, however, is rarely specific to one particular identity status or attribute. AHRC has noted that discrimination is rarely based on one groundexperience is compounded by other characteristics such as gender, disability, age, religious beliefs and sexuality. In this respect, it is important for any new pieces of legislation to consider the intersectional or multidimensional nature of individual experiences. It is also important to recognise the distinct discrimination faced by sex and gender diverse persons as an urgent area of inquiry. We believe that federal anti-discrimination legislation on the basis of sexuality only does not adequately cover sex and gender diverse people or the distinctive issues they face. The discrimination that a person faces because they are transgender relates to the expression and recognition of their gender identity rather than their sexuality. Including transgender or intersex protections within sexuality anti-discrimination legislation may produce assumptions that all sex and/or gender diverse people are gay, lesbian or bisexual, which is not the case. Many sex and gender diverse people consider themselves to be heterosexual. Recommendation 1: Provide a legislative framework that acknowledges the potential of simultaneous and intersecting forms of identity-based discrimination. HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK Following a National Human Rights Consultation in 2009, the Australian Government refused to introduce a charter, but has promised a human rights framework to promote human rights instead. Attempts to promote oversight of human rights compliance is evident in the recent establishment of the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Human Rights and the powers of the existing AHRC, both of which can scrutinise and hold Parliament accountable for the consistency of national laws with human rights principles. EXISTING LEGAL PROTECTIONS Existing unlawful discrimination at a federal level is covered by the Age Discrimination Act 2004 (Cth) (ADA), the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (DDA), the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) (RDA) and the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cth) (SDA). The grounds of discrimination covered under these Acts include: race, colour, descent or national or ethnic origin; sex; marital status; pregnancy or potential pregnancy; family responsibilities; disability; and age. In addition, unlawful discrimination also includes: offensive behaviour based on racial hatred, sexual harassment; and harassment of people with disabilities. There limited protection against discrimination on the grounds of sexual preference in employment under Divisions 2, 3 and 4 of Part II of the 鱨վ Act 1986 (Cth) (AHRC Act). AHRC can inquire into complains of discrimination by the Commonwealth or its agents or discrimination in employment and can make recommendations to Parliament however the recommendations are not enforceable. There is no anti-discrimination act at a federal level that covers discrimination on the basis of sexuality. Every state and territory anti-discrimination act covers discrimination on the basis of sexuality, sexual orientation, or homosexuality, alongside transsexuality or gender identity (the terminology varies across state legislation). Some states also cover lawful sexual activity. Federal industrial law also prohibits unfair dismissal and adverse action on the basis of a persons sexual preference, however, sex and/or gender identity is a notable omission. There are significant gaps and deficiencies in the state and territory anti-discrimination legislation. Exemptions within the state and territory acts allow discrimination on the basis of sexuality in some areas. For example, exemptions for private schools, religious organisations, charitable institutions, and employment involving children. In addition, s 109 of the Constitution means that any state laws that are inconsistent with federal laws are inoperative to the extent of the inconsistency. Inconsistent coverage between states and between states and the Commonwealth produces anomalous results and creates uncertainty around protection. For example, there is discrimination protection for public school teachers, because they are covered by state legislation. However no such coverage exists for university lecturers, covered by federal legislation. Similarly, discrimination protection in insurance policies is excluded from state laws because these are fully federal areas (e.g. family and couples). NEED AND SCOPE FOR REFORM CONSTITUTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS AND INTERNATIONAL LAW The Federal Government has authority to enact legislation in relation to international treaties Australia is a signatory to under the external affairs power of the Constitution (s 51(xxix)). Australia is a signatory to a number of treaties which indirectly provide protections against discrimination on the basis of sexuality, either under sex or other status categories. These include the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). The Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (ILO 111) provides that countries must ensure that they eliminate employment-related discrimination on the grounds of: race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction and social origin. The Convention also allowed countries to add additional criteria, with Australia adding the criteria of sexual preference in 1989. These treaties do not give rise to legal obligations in Australian law until Australia enshrines the protections in domestic legislation. A number of Australian laws have been introduced to incorporate elements of the above treaties, but none have been incorporated in their entirety. The 鱨վ Act 1986 (Cth) (AHRC Act) empowers AHRC to monitor whether Australia complies with its obligations under ICCPR, ILO 111 and CRC. In 2008, the Yogyakarta Principles were drafted by the International Commission of Jurists to promote international human rights obligations in relation to sexual orientation and gender identity. While these principles are not legally binding instruments, they act as persuasive interpretations of binding human rights treaties and relate to gay, lesbian and transgender people. It should be noted that the Yogyakarta Principles are not inclusive of many areas of concern to intersex people. In the cases of Toonen v Australia, Young v Australia and X. v Colombia, the UN Human Rights Committee has clearly articulated that the ICCPR prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Therefore the Commonwealth could rely on the external affairs power to implement a federal sexuality anti-discrimination law in accordance with its obligations under the ICCPR. In Toonen, the Committee found that Tasmanias criminal prohibition on male/male sexual activity breached the right to privacy (Article 17(1)) and right to non-discrimination (Article 2(1)) under the ICCPR. Eight years later, in Young, the Committee found that the Commonwealths refusal to provide an entitlement to a member of a same-sex couple amounted to a violation of their right to equal protection under the law (Article 26). While, in Toonen v Australia, the Committee concluded that the basis of discrimination on grounds of sexuality was in the term sex, in Young v Australia the Committee found that that basis of that discrimination was in other status. The Committee decided earlier this year in the case of X v Columbia that the decision in Toonen that sexual discrimination could be included in the category of sex was incorrect, which suggests that other status is the basis on which gay men and lesbians are protected from discrimination. NEED FOR LEGAL PROTECTIONS There is a need for Federal anti-discrimination legislation that offers protection on the grounds of sexual orientation and sex and/or gender identity due to the high levels of discrimination, harassment and violence towards LGBTI persons. Often, this discrimination is experienced in the workplace, in schools, and other areas of public and social life such as marriage. The extent of the discrimination shows that existing state protections are insufficient. The Gay and Lesbian Rights Lobby and University of Sydneys The Pink Ceiling is Too Low report, found that workplace discrimination and harassment towards gay men and lesbians is significant: over 50% of respondents had experienced harassment or discrimination in their current workplace; 21.7% of participants had been outed in the workplace against their will; and over 17% of participants felt that their careers had probably been restricted because of their non-heterosexual identity. Many lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) individuals face particular difficulty in accessing aged-care services. Over 89% of same-sex attracted people noted that they experienced judgmental or phobic attitudes from health care professionals. The need for federal anti-discrimination legislation is also evident in rates of harassment, discrimination and violence outside of the workplace. In 2003, the NSW Attorney-Generals Department released the report, You Shouldnt Have to Hide to be Safe, which documented extensive homophobic abuse, violence and harassment in NSW. That report found that of the 600 gay and lesbian community members surveyed, over half of the respondents had experienced at least one form of harassment, abuse or violence in the preceding 12 months and 85% had at some stage in their lifetime. Most recently, the Private Lives national GLBTI health and well-being survey, conducted by the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society and Gay and Lesbian Health Victoria, found that 67% of participants fear of prejudice or discrimination caused them, at least sometimes, to modify their daily activities in particular environments. 90% of participants had at some time avoided expressions of affection in public and disclosure of their gender identity or sexuality. Discrimination against students and teachers in schools is a significant problem in educational settings. In a 2007 national study about the sexuality, health and wellbeing of same-sex attracted young people, it was found that 38% of school students had encountered unfair treatment on the basis of their sexuality, 44% had been subject to verbal abuse and 16% had suffered physical abuse. Most alarmingly the report found that 74% of all harassment, discrimination and abuse, happened in school settings. In terms of educational outcomes, homophobia can cause students to change schools, to perform below their academic abilities and to withdraw from the many informal school curricula relating to social interaction. Homophobic and homophobic bullying can lead to mental health problems, including depression and in some circumstances suicide. According to the Whats the Difference? Study prepared by the Victorian Ministerial Advisory Committee on GLBTI Health and Wellbeing in 2002, there remains considerable discrimination in aged-care and health services. Many people report self-censorship of their sexual identity, or returning to the closet, in order to avoid physical harassment or alienation from an institutional aged-care facility. There are poor levels of training in the public sector and limited support networks available for gender diverse and transitioning individuals. Many sex and/or gender diverse persons report inappropriate care due to a lack of sensitivity or understanding from aged-care and health service providers about their anatomical, biological and/or social differences. Whilst making discrimination against gay men, lesbians and sex and/or gender diverse persons unlawful is necessary, it is not sufficient on its own. Vilification and harassment of these groups is a significant issue, which has been dealt with in a number of the state and territory acts. Anti-vilification legislation on the basis of sexuality aims to redress the high levels of violence and harassment against lesbians, gay men by outlawing public acts which: incite hatred towards, serious contempt for, or severe ridicule of, a person or group of persons on the ground of the homosexuality [transgender] of the person or members of the group. Such legislation seeks to not only prevent harassment, intimidation and violence, but also to educate the community about the occurrence of such acts. Provisions in state legislation have presented a strong and important message that vilification against same-sex attracted or sex and/or gender diverse people will not be tolerated within society. Unlike other forms of discrimination, legislative prohibitions of vilification are not limited by reference to particular areas of activity, such as employment, education or the provision of goods and services. Instead, their application is confined to instances of public acts. These can include any form of communication to the public, including speaking, writing, printing, displaying notices, broadcasting, telecasting, screening and playing of tapes or other recorded material, or any conduct observable by the public, such as actions, gestures, and the wearing or display of clothing, signs, flags, emblems and insignia. However, inconsistencies and exemptions in state legislation and the lack of protection at a Federal level have resulted in very few cases of vilification being prosecuted successfully. Lesbians and gay men in Australia continue to be subject to high levels of violence and harassment. Recent studies on homophobic and transphobic violence and harassment in found that: 56% of lesbians and gay men had experienced homophobic abuse or violence in the previous 12 months; 85% of lesbians and gay men have experienced harassment or violence during their lifetime; and 73.5 per cent of transgender men and 69.7 per cent of transgender women report experiencing personal insults or verbal abuse. These statistics indicate that there is an ongoing need for vilification legislation on the grounds of sexual orientation and sex and/or gender identity at a state level, and for such protections to be introduced at a federal level. Vilification protections should broadly encompass acts which intimidate, humiliate and vilify a person, as well as acts capable of inciting violence. The protection that such legislation provides against vilification and violence needs to continue if society is to reduce crimes against LGBTI people. Cases in NSW have shown that vilification against gay men in particular often also relates to actual or perceived HIV status. As gay men account for around 80% of people living with HIV, the vilification on the ground of HIV/AIDS status would disproportionately affect gay men. This has been recognised in NSW with the inclusion of HIV/AIDS status as a ground for prohibited vilification. Recommendation 2: Introduce comprehensive Federal legislation that prohibits vilification, intimidation and harassment on the basis of a persons sexual orientation, HIV/AIDS status, gender identity or expression and intersex status. RIGHT TO EQUALITY BEFORE THE LAW A number of Australian laws have been introduced to incorporate elements of the above treaties, but none have been incorporated in their entirety. Section 10 of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (RDA) provides a general right to equality before the law, implementing Australias obligations under article 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination to guarantee the right to everyone, without distinction as to race, colour, or national or ethnic origin, to equality before the law. The purpose of s 10 is not to make acts, omissions or practices of individuals unlawful, but rather is concerned with the operation and effect of laws. To make a successful claim under s 10, the applicant must be able to show that: (d) by reason of a law of the Commonwealth or of a State or Territory (or a provision of the law); (e) persons of a particular race, colour or national or ethnic origin: i. do not enjoy a right that is enjoyed by persons of another race; or ii. enjoy a right to a more limited extent than persons of another race. Accordingly, the applicant must be able to establish that the discrimination complained of arises by reason of the terms or practical effects of a statutory provision. However, in assessing whether particular legislation limits the enjoyment of the rights of a particular racial group, the courts have acknowledged that the enjoyment of rights in most cases is not absolute, but may involve a balancing against competing rights and interests. For example, in the case of Bropho v Western Australia [2008] FCAFC 100, the Full Federal Court held that, in applying s 10, it is necessary to recognise that some rights, such as property rights, are not absolute in their nature. Accordingly, actions that impact upon the ownership of property may not necessarily invalidly diminish the right to ownership of property. The Court held that no invalid diminution of property rights occur where the State acts in order to achieve a legitimate and non-discriminatory public goal. The Court noted, however, that its reasoning was not intended to imply that basic human rights protected by the [RDA] can be compromised by laws which have an ostensible public purpose but which are, in truth, discriminatory. Legislation prohibiting discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation, gender identity and expression and intersex and sex identity should include a right to equality before the law to ensure the implementation of Australias international obligations under article 26 of the ICCPR, which guarantees equality before the law and the right to non-discrimination. Recommendation 3: Legislation should provide for equality before the law, along the lines of s 10 of the RDA. MARRIAGE Australia has a dual path for legislative relationship recognition. Unlike other countries, couples have different modes of recognition, either through marriage, or the common law status of being in a de facto relationship. In a legal sense, de facto couples and married couples have the same rights at a federal level, and virtually all state and territory laws. The differences between the options is largely practical and administrative in nature, as you have to prove de facto status against a set of legislative criteria, while marriage provides automatic proof of a relationship. However, symbolic recognition of same-sex relationships is still largely unavailable with the absence of a nationally consistent civil union scheme or marriage equality. In the space of seven years (1999-2006) de facto recognition has been comprehensively expanded to guarantee the rights of same-sex couples in state and territory laws. At the end of 2008, the Federal Government passed a series of reforms to largely mirror the recognition offered by states and territories. Same-sex couples were recognised in taxation, parentage, superannuation, veterans affairs, social security and immigration laws. The effect of the reforms was to give same-sex couples the same rights, entitlements and responsibilities as heterosexual de facto couples at a Federal level. However, marriage remains strictly defined in heterosexual terms. In 2004 the Marriage Act 1961 was amended to expressly define marriage as a union between a man and a woman, to the exclusion of others voluntarily entered into for life. The change in definition explicitly excluded same-sex couples from marrying. Section 88EA was also inserted prohibiting the recognition of overseas same-sex marriages in Australia. Article 2(1) of the ICCPR provides that individuals should not be subject to discrimination and Article 26 emphasises that individuals should be treated equally before the law. Sexual orientation has been included as a valid category of discrimination as other status. In a holistic reading of the ICCPR, the Marriage Act breaches these international human rights principles by discriminating against same-sex couples on the basis of their sexual orientation. Some Australian states offer relationship register schemes to recognise partnerships, as a means to provide greater relationship recognition, however they are not a substitute for marriage equality. Tiering different kinds of conjugal relationships on the basis of sexuality effectively promotes a relationship apartheid with same-sex relationships being considered as inferior or lesser than heterosexual married couples. In Australia marriage is a civil institution, created by secular laws, and therefore religious opinion should not dictate the meaning of marriage. Federal legislation should mirror the civil character of marriage by allowing couples to marry regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity. Recommendation 4: Remove the current discriminatory language in the Marriage Act 1961 (Cth) including the current ban on the recognition of overseas under s 88EA, to allow all couples, regardless of sexual orientation or sex and/or gender identity, the right to marry. MODELS FOR REFORM Ideally, legislation prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and sex and/or gender identity would be based on best practice local and international examples, such as the UK Equality Act 2007. Some critics have argued that it would be a shame to extend current federal anti-discrimination law, which is inadequate and contains limited avenues of redress, to include another ground of discrimination, i.e. sexuality, rather than creating a new mechanism for addressing discrimination on the basis of sexuality. However, working within the current framework of anti-discrimination legislation, we believe that the Sex Discrimination Act (1984) provides an appropriate model for a federal anti-discrimination legislative framework. The essential features of the model are: definitions of direct and indirect discrimination and harassment; an identification of the grounds of discrimination (in the SDA: sex, marital status, pregnancy or potential pregnancy and family responsibilities); general prohibition against discrimination; and exemptions. DEFINING THE GROUNDS FOR DISCRIMINATION Sexuality The terms used to define sexuality in legislation vary from state to state. The Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia, and Australian Capital Territory anti-discrimination and equal opportunity acts use the term sexuality; whilst Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia use the phrase sexual orientation, and NSW uses the more specific term, homosexuality. In a number of states, the definition of sexuality and sexual orientation incorporates gender identity. A 1995 report by the Lesbian and Gay Legal Rights Service advocated for the use of homosexuality as opposed to sexuality, one of its reasons being that the primary objective of anti-discrimination law is the protection of a disadvantaged group within society. This approach recognises that discrimination on the basis of heterosexuality is not a source of disadvantage or oppression and that same-sex attracted people are the primary targets of such discrimination and harassment. It is a possibility that the legislation using the broader term sexuality could be used to attempt to undermine gay and lesbian organisations, or to file complaints against gay or lesbian community venues, for restricting access to heterosexual people. Some gay and lesbian organisations choose to employ gay men and lesbians, to create non-judgemental, safe spaces in which lesbians and gay men can socialise. However, homosexuality is a narrow and archaic term and can exclude a range of diverse sexualities. Sexual orientation is a more inclusive term, given that it incorporates protection for not only gay and lesbian sexualities, but also bisexuality. Similarly, looking at how other federal anti-discrimination acts address definitional questions, the racial discrimination legislation addresses race rather than minority races, and sex discrimination laws deal with sex rather than women. Any definition of sexual orientation should only provide protection on the grounds of lawful sexual activity. Gender Identities and Expressions As the GLRL is an organisation that deals primarily with gay and lesbian people, we are not able to comment on appropriate terminology in the legislation relating to sex and/or gender identity. This terminology should be developed in consultation with transgender communities. The term gender expression broadens the application of gender identity by targeting practices and behaviours of a person that is generally associated with a particular sex (whether or not the person is of that sex). Instead of focussing on legal sex, legislation must prohibit discrimination against a person who chooses to perform their gender role atypically or fails to conform to a particular social norm attributed to their assumed sex. For example, a male identifying person, who has feminine mannerisms or comportment, would be entitled to protection for expressing gender traits not socially associated to a male sex. Intersex and Sex Identity As the GLRL is an organisation that deals primarily with gay and lesbian people, we are not able to comment on appropriate terminology in the legislation relating to sex and/or gender identity. This terminology should be developed in consultation with intersex communities. Relationship Status Relationship status relates to having been or purporting to be in a living situation with or without a de facto partner or spouse. Currently, there is no coverage for non-marital relationship statuses in Federal anti-discrimination law (Sex Discrimination Act). This is of particular concern for same-sex couples, as current definitions in the Marriage Act 1961 preclude their ability to marry. De facto partners are defined in common law, and couples can also access relationship entitlements and responsibilities if they are living in a registered relationship. Extending the scope to relationship status is consistent with state and territory anti-discrimination laws. While supporting the use of sexual orientation, as the preferred terminology of legislation, the Federal Government must make it express that the principal objective of enacting federal anti-discrimination protections is to address the discrimination and marginalisation experienced by sexuality, sex and gender diverse communities in Australia. This can be achieved by specifically referring to its objective in a proposed bills second reading speech, statements by the Federal Government during the passage of a bill and included in explanatory memorandums or drafting notes. Recommendation 5: With respect to gay and lesbian people, proposed anti-discrimination legislation should use the broad terminology of sexual orientation. Terminology for legislation relating to sex and/or gender identity should be developed in consultation with transgender and intersex communities. Recommendation 6: Subsequent legislation should be amended to incorporate relationship status in gender-neutral terms to protect all non-married couples from relationship-based discrimination. DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCRIMINATION Given that all of the federal and state anti-discrimination acts categorise types of discrimination based on direct and indirect discrimination, any proposed federal anti-discrimination legislation on the basis of sexuality should also prohibit direct and indirect discrimination. Outlined below are recommendations for how such provisions could be constructed (based on equivalent provisions for sex discrimination under the SDA). GENERAL PRoHIBITION AGAINST DISCRIMINATION Article 1 of CEDAW introduces a free-standing prohibition against discrimination in the enjoyment or exercise by women of all human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field. Accordingly, the scope of CEDAW is not confined to specific areas of public life, but operates more generally. The language of Article 1 of CEDAW follows closely the equivalent Article 1(1) of International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which finds expression in s 9 of the RDA and contains a free-standing prohibition in s 9 against racial discrimination in all areas of public life. The RDA is a more complete and faithful implementation of Australias international obligations in relation to prohibiting discrimination. CEDAW, as well as the ICCPR and ICESCR, imposes an obligation on Australia to take appropriate and positive steps to ensure that individuals who have been discriminated against have access to an effective remedy. Indeed, the Human Rights Committee has stated that the failure to provide an effective remedy is itself a breach of a persons human rights. GLRL considers that when individuals have been discriminated against in circumstances in which CEDAW (and other relevant international conventions) applies, they should be entitled to an effective remedy. For the above reasons, GLRL considers that the inclusion of a free-standing prohibition against discrimination, along the lines of s 9 of the RDA, may be required to ensure compliance with Australias obligations under CEDAW. GLRL also notes that the experience under the RDA has not shown this to present impracticalities or excessive burdens on the community. Furthermore, GLRL is of the view that a blanket prohibition against discrimination in all areas of public life could represent an important statement of principle. It would make clear that discrimination offends against fundamental human rights in any area of public life and should not be tolerated. This point was noted by both the Australian Law Reform Commission (ALRC) and the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs in their respective reviews of the SDA, which each recommended the enactment of a free-standing prohibition against sex discrimination along similar lines as the RDA. A blanket prohibition against discrimination in all areas of public life would also make any new legislation clear and simple. It would minimise the need for complex litigation in interpreting the various provisions giving coverage to specific areas of public life and would operate largely as a catchall provision. Recommendation 7: Legislation should include a general prohibition against discrimination in all areas of public life, along the lines of s 9 of the RDA. EXEMPTIONS AND SPECIAL MEASURES EXEMPTIONS GLRL would like to make clear that following section should not apply to activities which have the primary objective of promoting of the social and cultural identity of sexuality, sex and gender diverse people. This will be discussed further below under Special measures. One of the most significant deficiencies with existing provisions in state and territory anti-discrimination legislation is the wide-ranging discretionary exemptions and exceptions which allow discrimination on the basis of sexuality and sex and/or gender identity in some areas. The most noteworthy of these areas include: private or religious schools and educational authorities; religious institutions; religious beliefs and principles, working with children, work in small businesses; work in a private household; and the provision of accommodation services in certain circumstances. Combined, these exemptions mean that numerous areas exist where it is legal for sexuality, sex and gender diverse people to be treated differently. The private and religious school exemption allows non-government schools to refuse to employ, or dismiss, gay and lesbian teachers; and it allows these schools to refuse to admit, or expel, students who identify as gay or lesbian. Whilst exemptions for private or religious schools and educational authorities are problematic, the exemption for genuine religious beliefs or principles is more insidious. It exempts discriminatory conduct where it is necessary to comply with religious beliefs and principles. According to Anna Chapman: [T]his religious beliefs exemption operates on a number of different levels. It significantly curtails the scope of the Victorian Act, it suppresses the visibility of lesbians and gay men in all aspects of life covered by the Victorian Act and it is a factor dissuading potential gay and lesbian complainants from lodging a complaint of discrimination under the lawful sexual activity [and sexual orientation] ground[s] in the Victorian statute. Ideally, no individual or organisation or institution should be able to discriminate against anyone on the grounds of his or her sexuality under any circumstances. From a practical perspective, however, it would be unrealistic to expect the creation of an act without any exemptions. The right for a private religious body to discriminate, for example, might be considered slightly more palatable, if the right to discriminate was relinquished as soon as that religious organisation accepted government funds, or, as soon as that religious organisation or body started providing social or welfare services. Similarly, religious organisations could not be considered exempt if they performed secular services funded by the government. Currently, a vast range of public social and welfare services, such as adoption and aged-care services, are contracted out to non-government bodies. As such a condition of public funding or contracting with NGOs, compliance with anti-discrimination legislation is essential. Recommendation 8: All bodies in receipt of public funding should be required to comply with anti-discrimination law without exemptions. Recommendation 9: All exemptions should not be permanent. Organisations and groups seeking to rely on an exemption should be required to apply for certification. This should be reviewable every few years. Recommendation 10: Organisations with exemptions should be required to publicly state their reliance on a particular exemption to improve transparency and accountability. SPECIAL MEASURES A fine balance needs to be reached between outlawing all discrimination on the basis of sexuality and sex and/or gender identity, ensuring that the act is not used for spurious claims, and that the social and cultural identity of a disadvantaged community group is preserved. The preservation of the groups identity is an important consideration in the framing of any federal anti-discrimination legislation on the basis of sexuality and sex and/or gender identity. In line with the recommendations of the Sexuality Discrimination Inquiry in 1996, special-needs groups may be identified and seek positive discrimination measures to overcome past disadvantage, and establish gay and lesbian accommodation, events or clubs. In addition, sexuality-specific organisations could apply for exemptions from providing services to the broader community, for example, health services. One way to address these concerns could be to insert a savings clause in a federal anti-discrimination bill, focussing on sexuality as a genuine occupational qualification. That is, a clause which stated that it is not unlawful to discriminate on the basis of someones sexuality when it is a genuine occupational qualification to be a person of a particular sexuality. Concern was raised by a number of critics that such a clause could be problematic, and could be used by churches, private educational institutions to assert that heterosexuality is a genuine occupational qualification for employment. If this clause were to be implemented, serious limitations would need to be included. In light of the problems associated with the occupation clause, a more appropriate savings clause would be one in which the social and cultural identity of gay men and lesbians is preserved. The Lesbian and Gay Legal Rights Service gave the following example of such a clause: Nothing in this Act makes unlawful any activity, one of the primary objectives of which is to preserve, protect or promote the social, cultural or sexual identity of the lesbian, gay or transgender communities. For an example of how such a clause works in state legislation, the Victorian Equal Opportunity Act 1995 provides an exception for disadvantaged groups or minority cultures. Section 61 states: A club, or a member of the committee of management or other governing body of a club, may exclude from membership a person who is not a member of the group of people with an attribute for whom the club was established if the club operates principally- (a) to prevent or reduce disadvantage suffered by people of that group; or (b) to preserve a minority culture. Any special measures included in the legislation should be considered in light of international law and Australias human rights obligations, including the need to consult with affected communities. Recommendation 11: A savings clause should be introduced to not make unlawful any activity that has a primary objective of promoting the social and cultural identity of sex, sexuality and gender diverse people. Special measures as defined in international law should be included in the legislation. PROMOTING A CULTURE OF NON-DISCRIMINATION Legislative change, though important, is not sufficient to deal with all identity-based discrimination targeted and sex, sexuality and gender diverse people. In order to ensure effective implementation and enforcement of anti-discrimination, a number of key mechanisms need to be established. Alongside the units for sex, age, race and disability within the 鱨վ, a new unit targeted at inquiring into complaints and reporting to parliament on sexual orientation, gender identity and expression and sex identity should be established. A ministerial portfolio should be created and with a minister directly responsible for the concerns of all sexuality, sex and gender diverse Australians. While anti-discrimination legislation is remedial in character, it should actively promote equality while redressing acts of discrimination. As part of a human rights education program, specific modules on sexuality, sex and/or gender diversity should be implemented to address harassment and discrimination in workplaces and educational institutions. Recommendation 12: Appointment of a Commissioner in the 鱨վ with responsibility for issues regarding sexual orientation, sex and/or gender identity. Recommendation 13: Introduction of a ministerial portfolio and appropriate secretarial support on sexual orientation, sex and/or gender identity and expression. Recommendation 14: Development of education and training programs, or cultural sensitivity workshops, for public authorities, workplaces and schools to prevent discrimination and harassment. FURTHER INFORMATION For further information, contact Kellie McDonald, Co-Convenor,  HYPERLINK "mailto:convenors@glrl.org.au" convenors@glrl.org.au or Senthorun Raj, Policy and Development Coordinator, at (02) 9571 5501 or  HYPERLINK "mailto:s.raj@glrl.org.au" s.raj@glrl.org.au.  Federal Discrimination Law 2005, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, p. 29.  Human Rights (Parliamentary Scrutiny) Bill 2010 (Cth) and 鱨վ Act 1989 (Cth).  Federal Discrimination Law 2005, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission.  Fair Work Act 2009 (Cth), ss 153, 186(4), 194, 195, 342, 351, 772(1)(f).  The external affairs power was used to enact the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth), the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cth), the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Cth), and the Age Discrimination Act 2004 (Cth). Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Treaties and Treaty Making,  HYPERLINK "http://www.dfat.gov.au/treaties/making/making3.html. Viewed 5 November 2007" http://www.dfat.gov.au/treaties/making/making3.html. Viewed 5 November 2007.  Recent international jurisprudence suggests that other status is the correct approach. See X v. Colombia. UNHRC, 2007, Unreported.  The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Regulations state that for the purposes of the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act 1986 (Cth), discrimination includes discrimination on the grounds of sexual preference. See Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Regulations 1989 (Cth), No 407 4(a)(ix).  Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Same-Sex: Same Entitlements, National Inquiry into Discrimination Against People in Same-Sex Relationships: Financial and Work-related Entitlements and Benefits, May 2007, p. 36.  International Commission of Jurists, The Yogyakarta Principles: Principles On The Application Of Human Rights Law In Relation To Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (2007),  HYPERLINK "http://www.yogyakartaprinciples.org/principles_en.htm" http://www.yogyakartaprinciples.org/principles_en.htm.  (488/92) UN Doc. CCPR/C/50/D/488/92.  (941/2000) UN Doc. CCPR/C/78/D/941/2000.  UNHRC, 2007, Unreported.  Ibid.  Irwin, J., The Pink Ceiling is Too Low, Workplace experiences of lesbians, gay men and transgender people, 2002.  See Ministerial Advisory Committee on Gay and Lesbian Health, Whats the difference?: health issues of major concern to gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and intersex (GLBTI) Victorians Melbourne: Department of Human Services 2002 available at  HYPERLINK "http://www.health.vic.gov.au/glbtimac/downloads/health_sexual_div.pdf"www.health.vic.gov.au/glbtimac.  You Shouldnt Have to Hide to be Safe A Report on Homophobic Hostilities and Violence Against Gay Men and Lesbians in NSW, NSW Attorney-Generals Department, Crime Prevention Division, 2003.  Pitts, M. et al, Private Lives A Report on the Health and Wellbeing of GLBTI Australians, 2006, Gay and Lesbian Health Victoria and the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, p. 11.  Hillier, L., Turner, A., and Mitchell, A., Writing Themselves In Again: 6 years on, The 2nd national report on the sexual health & well-being of same-sex attracted young people in Australia, Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health & Society, (ARCSHS), La Trobe University, 2007, p. vii.  Ministerial Advisory Committee on Gay and Lesbian Health, Whats the difference?: health issues of major concern to gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and intersex (GLBTI) Victorians Melbourne: Department of Human Services 2002, p. 43, available at  HYPERLINK "http://www.health.vic.gov.au/glbtimac/downloads/health_sexual_div.pdf"www.health.vic.gov.au/glbtimac.  Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW), s 49ZT and s 49ZTA; Discrimination Act 1991 (ACT), ss 66(1)(b) and 67; Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld), s 124A; Anti-Discrimination Act 1998 (Tas), s 19.  Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW), s 38S.  See, for example, Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW), s 49ZT.  See, for example, Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW), s 49ZS, Anti-Discrimination Act 1998, (Tas), s 19. See Mason, G., Harm, Harassment and Sexuality, Melbourne University Law Review, [2002], MULR, 31.  HYPERLINK "http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/sinodisp/au/journals/MULR/2002/31.html?query=sexuality%20and%20vilification#fn26" http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgibin/sinodisp/au/journals/MULR/2002/31.html?query=sexuality%20and%20vilification#fn26 .  Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW), s 49ZS.  NSW Attorney-Generals Department, Crime Prevention Division, You Shouldnt Have to Hide to be Safe A Report on Homophobic Hostilities and Violence Against Gay Men and Lesbians in NSW, 2003 and Pitts, M., Smith, A., Mitchell, A., & Patel, S. (2006). Private Lives: A Report on the Wellbeing of GLBTI Australians, Melbourne: Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, La Trobe University.  Mabo v Queensland (1988) 166 CLR 186, 230 (Deane J).  Sahak v Minister for Immigration & Multicultural Affairs (2002) 123 FCR 514, 523 [35] (Goldberg and Hely JJ). See further GLRL, Federal Discrimination Law (2008), 35-6.  See Gerhardy v Brown (1985) 159 CLR 70, 81 (Gibbs CJ), 92-93 (Mason J) and 119 (Brennan J); Mabo v Queensland (1988) 166 CLR 186, 198 (Mason CJ), 204 (Wilson J), 216 (Brennan, Toohey and Gaudron JJ) and 242 (Dawson J); Western Australia v Ward (2002) 213 CLR 1, 98 [103] and 107 [126] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ); Bropho v Western Australia [2008] FCAFC 100, [73]; Sahak v Minister for Immigration & Multicultural Affairs (2002) 123 FCR 514, 523 [35] (Goldberg and Hely JJ); Bropho v Western Australia [2008] FCAFC 100, [64], [73].  Ibid [83], see generally [80]-[83].  Ibid [82]. In Bropho, the Reserves (Reserve 43131) Act 2003 (WA) (Reserves Act) and actions taken under it were said to have limited the enjoyment of the property rights of the Aboriginal residents of the Swan Valley Nyungah Community (Reserve 43131) by, in effect, closing that community. The Court held that any interference with the property rights of residents was effected in accordance with a legitimate public purpose, namely to protect the safety and welfare of residents of the community. It therefore did not invalidly diminish the property rights of the residents.  Reg Graycar and Jenni Millbank (2007) From Functional Family to Spinster Sisters: Australias Distinctive Path to Relationship Recognition, Journal of Law and Policy 24 121 at 122.  See Same-Sex Relationships (Equal Treatment in Commonwealth Laws- General Law Reform) Act 2008.  Marriage Act 1961 (Cth) s5(1).  Article 2(1), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, G.A res. 2200A (XXI), 22 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 52.  Id, Article 26.  X v. Colombia, UNHRC, 2007, Unreported.  See also Toonen v Australia, Communication No. 488/92, 31 March 1994 and Young v Australia, Communication 941/2000, 6 August 2003.  Currently available in NSW, Victoria, Tasmania and the ACT.  Anti-Discrimination Act (NT), s 19(c); Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld), s 7(n); Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (SA), s 29(b); Discrimination Act 1991 (ACT), s 7(1)(b).  Anti-Discrimination Act 1998 (Tas), s 16(c); Equal Opportunity Act 1996 (Vic), s 6(6) (1); Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (WA), s 35O.  Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW), pt 4C, s 49ZG.  Lesbian & Gay Legal Rights Service, Commonwealth Legislation to Prohibit Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gay Men and Transgender Persons A Discussion Paper, July 1995.  Ibid.  Ibid.  See the definition of de facto partner in the dictionary. This refers to the definition contained in section 22A of the Acts Interpretation Act 1901 (Cth).  Recommendation 4 of Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Committee, Report into the Effectiveness of the Commonwealth Sex Discrimination Act 1984 in eliminating discrimination and promoting gender equality Canberra: Parliament of Australia 2009.  Based on ss 5(1), 6(1) and 7(1) of the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cth).  The specific provisions do not limit the generality of s 9: Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) s 9(4). See further Gerhardy v Brown (1985) 159 CLR 70, 85 (Gibbs CJ).  CEDAW art 2; ICCPR art 2(3); and ICESCR art 2.  Human Rights Committee, General Comment 31, Nature of the General Legal Obligation on States Parties to the Covenant, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13 (2004), [15]-[17].  Australian Law Reform Commission, Equality Before the Law: Womens Equality, Report No 69, pt II (1994), Recommendation 3.1; House of Representatives Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Half Way to Equal: Report of the Inquiry into Equal Opportunity and Equal Status for Women in Australia (1992), Recommendation 60. For example, the Committee noted (at 260 [10.3.7]): As discrimination against an individual on the basis of race or sex should be regarded as a contravention of a basic right, the Committee believes that it is desirable to bring the Sex Discrimination Act in line with the general prohibition contained in the Racial Discrimination Act.  Anti-Discrimination Act 1997 (NSW), s 49ZO(3); Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic), s 38(a); Discrimination Act 1991 (ACT), s 27, s 46; Anti-Discrimination Act (NT), s 37A, s 30(2).  Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act 1986 (Cth) s 3(1)(d) of the definition of discrimination; Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic) s 75 and s 76; Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW) s 56; Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld) s 29, s 109; Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (SA) s 50; Discrimination Act 1991 (ACT) s 32; Anti-Discrimination Act 1992 (NT) s 51. Note that the wording and scope of these provisions varies considerably from statute to statute; many of the provisions do not apply to all the grounds listed in the relevant statute.  Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic), s 77.  Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld), s 28(1). NB, this provision relates to gender identity rather than sexual orientation.  Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic), s 21(1); Anti-Discrimination Act (NT), s 35(2)  Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW), s 49ZH(3)(a)  Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW), s 49ZQ(3)(a) and (b)  Public Attitudes to Discrimination in Private Schools, The Australia Institute, May 2004.  Chapman, A., Australian Anti-Discrimination Law and Sexual Orientation: Some Observations on Terminology and Scope, Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law, Volume 3, Number 3, September 1996.  HYPERLINK "http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v3n3/chapman.html" http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v3n3/chapman.html.  Senate Inquiry into Sexuality Discrimination, Recommendations, and Clause 27, Sexuality Discrimination Bill 1995 (Cth).  Clause 31, Sexuality Discrimination Bill 1995 (Cth).  Lesbian & Gay Legal Rights Service, Commonwealth Legislation to Prohibit Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gay Men and Transgender Persons A Discussion Paper, July 1995.  Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic), s61.     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