ࡱ> g bjbjVV 4r<r<  ZZZZZnnn8BlnTnpmmmmmmm$6prmZ000mZZn@@@0ZZm@0m@@i0lԯNqM3f7j$m$n0Tn[j@s4sHlsZl$zs#@(+mmW7 Tn0000s : 2009 African Australians: A report on human rights and social inclusion issues discussion paper Submission from Farida Fozdar, Senior Lecturer, Sociology and Community Development, Murdoch University Murdoch. Thank you for the opportunity to provide feedback on issues for African Australians. My report notes the major issues that research undertaken by myself and others have identified and includes a set of references (with abstract) that may be of use to support these findings. Rather than repeat the arguments and evidence that has been published in these articles, reference is simply made to them. All publications use extensive quotations from African migrants, allowing their voices to be heard. The research undertaken was from a number of projects outlined here. The Listening to Diverse Voices project (Healthway funded, 2001-2003) used focus groups and interviews with over a hundred African Australians to understand perceptions of the characteristics and causes of Depression among Horn of Africa communities (Somali, Sudanese, Ethiopian, Eritrean). The Employment and Visible Difference project (Australia Research Council Funded, 2004-2007) used face to face questionnaires with 150 educated refugees from three regions (former Yugoslavia, middle East and Africa), and in-depth interviews with 40 employers, to understand the barriers to employment for refugees. The Pathways to Apprenticeships and Traineeships for people from CaLD backgrounds project (DETWA funded, 2005) explored reasons for CaLD migrants not taking up apprenticeships and traineeships, using focus groups and interviews (a proportion of participants were from African backgrounds). The Career Development Program for Refugee and Migrant youth (DIaC funded, 2006) developed a career guidance package useful for schools or English language centres to use with new communities (a proportion of participants were from African backgrounds), in consultation with teachers and students at an intensive language centre. If you would like copies of any of the references they can be provided. I would also be available for a consultation if the panel is interested. Please note that prior to 2008 I published as Farida Tilbury. At the outset it should be noted that African Australians are not homogenous, having different cultural and language groupings, competing political allegiances, and migration histories, as well as differences based on gender, age, ability, sexuality, and religion. Several sections ask whether the experiences of African Australians are different based on religion, age, gender, sexuality and disability. Simply put, yes, all these factors produce different experiences, as do the different language groupings (French speakers vs English speakers). Muslim Africans face a double disadvantage. Key issues Employment and training Unemployment and under employment, despite often high levels of education and training (see Colic-Peisker and Tilbury, 2007; 2006) Deskilling, employment below capacity The development of low level job market niches, such as taxi driving, aged care, security, cleaning, work in chicken and other factories etc (see Colic-Peisker and Tilbury, 2006). Several interrelated mechanisms produce this effect: non-recognition of qualifications as a systemic barrier, discrimination on the basis of race and cultural difference by employers, ethnic-path integration and the lack of mainstream social networks that could assist in the job search, and the recent regional sponsored migration scheme through which the government tries to address the shortage of low-skilled labour in depopulating country areas. Unrealistic expectations re education and training; focus on high level education and lack of knowledge of other options (see Gallegos and Tilbury 2006; Walker, Tilbury, Volet, Tungaraza, Hastie 2005). Barriers re services of employment agencies which are set up to provide mainstream services, and are rewarded for focusing on the easy clients rather than those difficult to place, such as refugees (see Torezani, Fozdar, Colic-Peisker 2008). JobNetwork providers do not have the skills to support African Australians. Refugees find the most useful thing provided by these service providers are networking opportunities, rather than skills development or the outcome of finding a job. Challenges in finding and retaining employment include: qualification recognition; language issues; structural/institutional racism (including inadequate provision for cultural difference); interpersonal racism; trauma issues; social obligations; (see Colic-Peisker and Tilbury 2006; 2007; Tilbury and Colic-Peisker 2006; Tilbury 2007; Fozdar 2009) Unemployment and underemployment affect health and wellbeing in complex ways (see Fozdar and Torezani, 2008) Issues of discrimination and its effects have been well documented (see all references). People are reluctant to report discrimination due to concerns about implications for family reunion applications, possible impact on community generally, lack of a sense of entitlement. Education A variety of educational opportunities are available to African Australians, including formal AMEP and mainstream schooling/training, and they are keen to take these up. Women sometimes have difficulty accessing these opportunities due to child care issues (see Tilbury and Rapley 2004; Tilbury et al 2005). Qualification and skills recognition remain a concern, although a number of initiatives are in place attempting to address this (see the government report Negotiating the Maze). The requirements of professional organizations are often more stringent and restrictive/exclusionist than government requirements. Some African refugee families want their children to aim high, resulting in lack of uptake of apprenticeships and traineeships (see Walker et al 2005). Lack of knowledge of other options exacerbates this, resulting in those who fail to achieve tertiary education being left without skills (in low level unskilled jobs, see Colic-Peisker and Tilbury, 2006) A Phd thesis by Marianne Turner (2009) explores issues for Sudanese adults in education (community, TAFE, Uni). She found a number of cultural issues such as connection to community; different orientations to learning and to teachers as experts; issues around the degree of formality of the learning environment; and other factors, affected learning. Dedicated tutorials were found to be useful for those who used them, but also students who developed relationships with teachers outside of class were able to leverage extra support. Mixed groups were also best for learning English. Health Service provision can tend to take a pathological approach to entire communities. While it is important to acknowledge the possible effects of torture and trauma, making this the focus of service provision causes problems. (See Fozdar 2009; Tilbury 2007; Tilbury and Rapley 2004; Colic-Peisker and Tilbury 2003; Tilbury, Clark, Slee, and OFerrall 2005). This can have the effect of reinforcing disempowerment, and ignoring resilience factors, as well as diverting resources from other forms of service provision. When asked about what causes depression African Australians more commonly cite settlement difficulties, rather than pre-migration trauma. Issues identified include unemployment, isolation, culture shock, intergenerational and gender conflict, and racism. (See Fozdar 2009; Tilbury 2007; Tilbury and Rapley 2004; Tilbury, Clark, Slee, and OFerrall 2005) Mental health issues have some stigma among African communities. Traditional and religious cures are likely to be sought, rather than talk cures (see above). Communities talk about their own resilience and the importance of community/social connection to protect against mental health problems. Housing African refugees appreciate the housing assistance provided to them. Often houses are not large enough to support larger families. Finding both houses, and willing landlords, is a challenge. Housing must be close to public transport. A recent report on homelessness among new and emerging communities (Hidden Homelessness: the impact of homelessness on newly arrived youth, by ASeTTS) identifies a number of issues, particularly a steady increase in numbers; secondary homelessness (couch surfing); family conflict and relationship difficulties, shortages of private and public housing and financial constraints are the main causes; impacts include disruption of schooling, overcrowding in small units causing the risk of eviction, and triggering of past trauma. The report recommends more education to raise awareness of available services; early intervention funding; recognition of cultural issues such as the inappropriateness of gender sharing; the need for longitudinal research; the need for proactive and flexible service delivery models; professional development and training on cultural issues; and the need to consult community leaders. In Western Australia there has been some tension between African and Indigenous communities, with the perception among Indigenous communities that Africans are getting priority in public housing (see Colic-Peisker and Tilbury, 2008, for discussion of further issues around the African/Indigenous relationship) Justice The Australian authorities attempt to deal in a just and inclusive way with African Australians, on the whole. A few examples exist of young people feeling they are targeted by shop security (for example) (see Tilbury et al 2005) but generally police appear to genuinely attempt to engage positively with these communities. Many justice institutions have multicultural liaison officers designed to facilitate relations between CaLD communities generally and these organizations, and they recognize the need to focus some attention on the African communities. African men feel very strongly that they are inappropriately targeted by legal and justice systems (see Tilbury et al 2005; Tilbury 2007). They report that the first thing their wives are given at English language classes is the phone number for the womens refuge; the first thing their children is given is the number to report parental abuse. While this may not be true, it is a strong perception among the men. They feel the Australian systems interfere with their traditional family structures and rights, and this is often the basis of their criticism of Australias claims to be truly multicultural and inclusive. This is a complex issue with no easy answers, but attempts must be made to encourage these men to feel included, while not compromising on the safety and rights of women and children. Supporting genuine participation: ways forward Many analysts have identified a negative climate towards migrants and refugees, and Muslims and Africans particularly, that has developed over the last few years. This has been identified as a retreat from multiculturalism, in policy, practice and rhetoric (see Fozdar forthcoming, among many others such as Jupp, Gale, Every and Augostinos, Brett, Issues Deliberation Australia, Dunn, Tate, Johnson, etc). Australia has, since the early 1970s, prided itself on building a multicultural nation of migrants from diverse racial and cultural backgrounds. Multiculturalism had become part of the national identity. In the last few years, however, under the leadership of a conservative government and in light of international events, there has been a clear movement away from multiculturalism (even its weak or symbolic versions) towards monoculturalism by Australias politicians Howard and Costello explicitly attacked mushy multiculturalism and removed it from policy and government department nomenclature. This has been mirrored by rising xenophobia (both fear of outsiders and fear of the stranger within) among the population and a hysterical rallying of forces pointing to serious divisions caused by multiculturalism. Thus the commitment to pluralism which Australia had fostered for some time is now under threat by the end of the Howard era, cultural homogeneity and assimilation had returned to the policy agenda, particularly through discourses of national fragmentation, identity loss, values challenges, and risk. The notion of social cohesion was used to identify certain groups as unable to integrate into Australian society among them, Africans and Muslims. A broader question is that of the general perception of African refugees (as a subset of migrants generally). This reached its lowest ebb with the unsubstantiated comments of former Minister Kevin Andrews who stated that African refugee numbers were being reduced due to the fact that they are having difficulty integrating into Australian society. Such negativity from the top levels of government does not make for an inclusive climate and encourages xenophobia among the general population. Simple ways to change perceptions of African Australians as alien outsiders include: Pointing out that Africans have been in Australia since white settlement (see Cassandra Pybus work) they are not a new group. Encouraging civic nationalism, rather than ethnic nationalism; encouraging the celebration of cultural diversity; and encouraging recognition that we are all migrants (apart from Indigenous Australians). Having honest and open forums about differences in values and practices, any limits to acceptance of these, and how they can be addressed. Pointing to successes and contributions made Providing cross cultural training in all spheres identified in this enquiry (housing, employment, health, justice etc). While good work is being in some areas, more needs to be done in others. Enabling opportunities for interaction between African and mainstream Australians. Improving media coverage True social inclusion would involve mainstream Australian society learning from new communities, and adopting some of their values and practices. Employment and training; Education Bridging courses Employment readiness courses (including soft skills and cultural aspects) Career guidance that provides realistic options and information about pathways to a range of jobs in areas of interest (see Gallegos and Tilbury 2006) Work-related English language courses Cultural awareness training for employers and teachers (to a lesser extent), emphasizing the value of diversity, and any special needs. Health The Cultural Awareness Tool may be of help to medical professionals dealing with African Australian clients (See Seah et al, 2001) While there are problems with the cultural profile approach to encouraging cultural sensitivity, resources like the West Australian health departments Culture and Health Care can be a useful background tool. Health education of African communities is best done through a variety of means including translated information leaflets, use of ethnic radio, making videos in languages of origin and with African-Australian actors , public community events (according to the communities themselves, see Tilbury et al, 2005). THIS IS MOST LIKELY TRUE FOR ALL KINDS OF INFORMATION THE ENQUIRY ASKS ABOUT (HEALTH, HOUSING, JUSTICE, RIGHTS ETC) African Australians report that respecting their culture (by valuing and accepting different norms and values; by enabling the retention of traditional forms of support and advice such as councils of elders; and by representing it positively) would improve their mental health (see Tilbury et al, 2005; 2007; Fozdar in press 2009). Housing Some larger houses must be made available in the public pool. To encourage inclusive attitudes (re 4.6) landlords could be given incentives to take African families (either cash subsidy per week or additional bond) Insurance is an important security issue that Africans may not understand education about the function and value of home and contents insurance, and issues for owners and renters is necessary. A special section of the relevant public housing authorities could coordinate special services to refugees generally (that would include support for African Australians). See recommendations from ASeTTS homelessness study (outlined above) Justice African communities would prefer that systems of elders be given the power to undertake restorative justice rather than the full force of the Western legal and justice system being enacted immediately when someone breaks the law, particularly where there is family violence. (See Tilbury et al 2005; 2007; Fozdar in press 2009) African communities would like to be informed about cultural differences and legal differences regarding family relations before they arrive in Australia. This may not be realistic, given the other information they also have to receive, but there is a strong sense that Australias multiculturalism is skin deep (the term cultural imperialism was used to describe the imposition of values on the communities). While it is recognized, particularly by the women, that Australia has different values and laws that must be upheld, this may need more emphasis from the outset, and forums for discussion of the rationale behind certain values and laws would be helpful for the communities from early in their arrival. Improving relations between African Australians and authorities can be achieved through cultural awareness training (both sides); encouraging African Australians into employment or voluntary positions in the justice or law enforcement systems (including emergency services cadets, army reserves etc) Media can improve its coverage through improved cultural awareness developed by using resources such as the Reporting Diversity resource, by Prof Gail Phillips (Murdoch Uni) and colleagues. Note: A Murdoch Masters student is finding significant levels of discontent among African communities about the manner of funding which they see as supporting service providers rather than directly funding activities and services that could/should be provided by the communities themselves. It is recognized that there are issues of expertise here, but this concern is one that is likely to become a significant one over time. Of particular concern is the expectation that community leaders will continue to provide advice, access and support without recompense. There is a need for the provision of training and the provision and monitoring of funding to communities themselves to deal with some of the issues raised. Relevant research papers and resources by the author. Books Fozdar F, Wilding R and Hawkins M (2009) Race and Ethnic Relations, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. A text book on race relations in Australia using many examples relevant to African Australians. Colic-Peisker V and Tilbury F (eds) (2007) Social Inclusion of Refugees. Centre for Social and Community Research, Murdoch University, Perth. An edited collection of papers given at the Social Inclusion of Refugees workshop in Perth, identifying issues for African refugees particularly. Wilding, R and Tilbury, F, (Eds) (2004) A Changing people: diverse contributions to Western Australia, Perth, Office of Multicultural Interests, Dept Premier and Cabinet, 351 pages. An edited collection tracking the history and contribution of migrants to WA. Includes a chapter on African refugees. Book Chapters Tilbury, F, Colic-Peisker, V and Torezani, S (2007) Refugees and employment: a Perth case study of three communities, in Social Inclusion of Refugees, Colic-Peisker, V and Tilbury, F (eds). Centre for Social and Community Research, Murdoch University, Perth. A summary of the main issues identified in the Visible Difference and Employment project. Asekeh, G and Tilbury, F, (2004) A Different Life: African migrants in Western Australia in A Changing people: diverse contributions to Western Australia, in R. Wilding and F. Tilbury (Eds), Perth, Office of Multicultural Interests, Dept Premier and Cabinet, pp134-149. Covers issues for and contributions of African migrants to Western Australia Journal Articles Colic-Peisker, V and Tilbury, F (2008) Being black in Australia: a case study of intergroup relations, Race and Class, 49 (4): 38-56. This article presents a case study in Australias race relations tension between urban Aborigines and recently resettled African refugees, particularly among the youth. We argue that the relationship between the two racialised groups of low socio-economic status, who are highly visible in the context of a predominantly white Australia, reflects the history of strained race relations in modern Australia and a growing antipathy to multiculturalism. Applying aspects of contact and conflict theories, we analyse wider intergroup patterns and suggest more specific reasons for the tension between the two populations, specifically perceptions of competition for material (housing, welfare, education) and symbolic (position in a racial hierarchy) resources. We argue that the phenomenon is more deeply embedded in class and race issues than simply in youth violence. Fozdar, F and Torezani, S (2008) Discrimination and well-being: perceptions of refugees in Western Australia, International Migration Review, 42(1): 30-63. This paper reports the apparent paradox of high levels of discrimination experienced by humanitarian migrants to Australia, in the labour market and everyday life, yet simultaneous reporting of positive well-being. How can people feel discriminated against, yet still be relatively satisfied with life? The study draws on quantitative and qualitative data from a study of 150 refugees from the former Yugoslavia, the Middle East and Africa. Possible reasons for the level of well-being are explored, including relative deprivation theory, as well as various resiliency and mitigating factors, including personal and social supports. The notion of eudaimonic well-being whereby experiences of difficulty produce positive well-being is also applied to the findings. The negative experiences and perceptions appear to map onto low level dissatisfaction or disgruntlement, and specifically directed or contained disappointment, rather than serious dissatisfaction with life generally, orientation to Australia, or negative subjective well being. Torezani, S, Fozdar, F and Colic-Peisker, V (2008) Looking for a missing link: formal employment services and social networks in refugees job search, Journal of Intercultural Studies, 29(2): 135-152. Finding employment and developing social networks that can facilitate this task can be major challenges for migrants from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds in Australia and comparable countries, and even more so for refugees who represent a potentially more disadvantaged section of the immigrant intake. This paper explores refugees perception and use of the Job Network (JN), a group of employment service providers contracted by the Australian government. Using data from a survey of 150 skilled refugee settlers from former Yugoslav, African and Middle Eastern backgrounds in Perth, Western Australia, as well as data collected through interviews with employment service providers and other key informants, we report a mismatch between service providers and refugees perceptions and expectations of the employment services. Refugees perceived the JN services and especially JN-provided job training as an opportunity to develop social networks rather than to learn specific job-search relevant skills. On the basis of this finding, and within the social capital framework we apply the concept of linking social capital the capacity of individuals to leverage resources, ideas and information from institutions beyond their immediate communities to the labour market integration of refugees in Australia. We conclude that despite the failure of the JN to provide the services refugees need, their activities may be useful for developing linking social capital. Fozdar, F (in press) The Retreat from Multiculturalism: the Australian experience, Inclusion and Citizenship: Readings in Contemporary Pluralism, Inter-Disciplinary Press Oxford, United Kingdom. This paper explores the recent retreat from multiculturalism in Australia, in policy, practice and rhetoric. The colonial settler society of Australia has, since the early 1970s, prided itself on building a multicultural nation of migrants from diverse racial, religious and cultural backgrounds. In the last few years, however, under the leadership of a conservative government and in light of international events, there has been a clear movement away from multiculturalism (even its weak or symbolic versions) towards monoculturalism by Australias politicians. This has been mirrored by rising xenophobia among the population. The paper examines the manner in which cultural homogeneity and assimilation has returned to the policy agenda, particularly through discourses of national fragmentation, identity loss, values challenges, and risk. The retreat to a Eurocentric identity and explicitly Enlightenment values, within the context of a Judeo-Christian heritage, is evidence of the growing confidence of the mainstream in asserting a traditional version of what it means to be Australian. The paper uses analysis of politicians speeches, the Department of Immigration and Citizenship website and debate about the new citizenship test, together with attitudes survey data to demonstrate how current political discourse is attempting to realign the nation as an imagined community. Fozdar, F (in press, 2009) The golden country: Ex-Yugoslav and East African refugee experiences of settlement and depression, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. Depression and post-traumatic stress disorder are frequent diagnoses made of refugee clients by health professionals attempting to deal with patients having settlement difficulties. However, this focus on psychological diagnosis and intervention tends to ignore political, economic, cultural and racial aspects of the settlement experience which affect well-being. This paper reports the findings of two studies of former Yugoslav and Horn of Africa refugee settlement experiences in Perth, Western Australia, which demonstrate the links, in the perceptions of refugees at least, between well-being and two closely related factors: employment and culture shock. It reports data from questionnaires, interviews and focus groups with over 200 people from refugee backgrounds, including Bosnians, Croatians, Ethiopians, Eritreans, Sudanese and Somalis, which indicate their perception that post migration experiences are more important in undermining well-being than pre-migration physical and psychological trauma. Tilbury, F, (2007) I feel I am a bird without wings: discourses of sadness and loss among east Africans in Western Australia, Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power, Volume  HYPERLINK "http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713663307~db=all~tab=issueslist~branches=14" \l "v14" \o "Click to view volume" \t "_top" 14, Issue 4 July 2007, p 433 458 Using data from a qualitative study of understandings and experiences of depression among a number of East African communities in Western Australia, this article explores the dimensions of sadness and loss expressed by migrants and refugees. After discussing the parameters and cross cultural (ir)relevance of the Western biomedical notion of depression (Kleinman and Good 1985), and its relationship to the hegemony of the Western happiness imperative  ADDIN ENRfu (Wierzbicka 1999: 249), the article discusses methodological challenges involved in exploring understandings of depression among migrants. It then examines the ways in which sadness is expressed, and the causes to which it is attributed, using extracts from interviews and focus groups with over 100 people from Ethiopian, Eritrean, Sudanese and Somali backgrounds. The article argues that individualizing these concerns and reading them within the dominant Western biomedical framework of depression reinforces pathological representations of migrants and refugees, ignores structural disadvantage which produces negative emotional responses, limits settlement service responses and may be recruited for the negative end result of arguing against immigration. Colic-Peisker, V and Tilbury, F, (2007), Integration into the Australian labour market: the experience of three visibly different groups of recently arrived refugees, International Migration, Vol 45, No 1:59-85. This paper explores the effects of visible difference on employment outcomes of three recently arrived refugee groups: ex-Yugoslavs, black Africans, and people from the Middle East. The paper draws on data collected through a survey (150 questionnaire-based face-to-face interviews conducted by bilingual interviewers) of refugees who settled in Western Australia over the past decade. Results indicate different outcomes for respondents from the three backgrounds despite similar levels of human capital and similar length of residence. Our evidence supports a political economy of labour migration interpretation for the differential outcomes, based on both structural and interpersonal racism, rather than a neo-classical explanation which holds that the job market is blind to ethnicity. Despite high unemployment and loss of occupational status, predominantly highly educated efugees were relatively satisfied with their lives in Australia. Colic-Peisker, V and Tilbury, F (2006), Employment niches for recent refugees: segmented labour market of the 21st century Australia, Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2:203-229. A survey of three refugee groups (ex-Yugoslavs, black Africans and people from the Middle East) in Western Australia indicates that the recent humanitarian arrivals are concentrated in labour market niches such as cleaning services, care of the aged, meat processing, taxi driving, security and building. Apart from the building industry, these employment niches are situated in the secondary labour market comprising low-status and low-paid jobs that locals avoid. This article identifies several interrelated mechanisms through which the recent Australian refugee intake has been relegated to undesirable jobs: non-recognition of qualifications as a systemic barrier, discrimination on the basis of race and cultural difference by employers, ethnic-path integration and the lack of mainstream social networks that could assist in the job search, and the recent regional sponsored migration scheme through which the government tries to address the shortage of low-skilled labour in depopulating country areas. The data show massive loss of occupational status among our respondents and confirm the existence of the segmented labour market, where racially and culturally visible migrants are allocated the bottom jobs regardless of their human capital. Changes in the nature of the segmented labour market in the increasingly mobile global workforce are analysed. Some of these insights are drawn from two other research projects on Bosnian and Afghan refugees in Australia undertaken by the authors. Tilbury, F and Colic-Peisker, V (2006) Deflecting responsibility in employer talk about race discrimination, Discourse and Society, 17 (5):651-676. This paper explores a number of discursive devices used by employers when talking about employment market issues for migrants in Australia. Data comes from a research project which sought to understand barriers to employment for visibly different refugees and new migrants. Analysis reveals find that employers use a number of rhetorical strategies, embedded within broader racist discourses, to deflect attention from their own possible culpability in discriminating against those from migrant and refugee backgrounds. The forms these exoneration utterances take are examined in detail. Employers attribute inequitable employment outcomes to the market, their customers or clients, the community and to the applicants themselves, absolving themselves, and the companies they represent, of responsibility. Educational interventions at the structural level are required to ensure employers see the value of diversity, rather than just the challenges. Tilbury, F (2006) Ethical dilemmas: Principles and Practice in research with African refugees a response to Bailes et al, Monash Bioethics Review, 23 (4) 75-84. This response identifies some of the practical challenges of undertaking research with African refugees in a ethical manner. Tilbury, F, and Rapley, M, (2004) "There are orphans in Africa still looking for my hands": African women refugees and the sources of emotional distress, Health Sociology Review,13 (1):54-64. This paper explores issues of emotional distress expressed by refugee women from Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan and Eritrea who now live in Western Australia.Qualitative data from interviews and focus groups are used to illustrate differences in understandings of distress, including depression and anxiety, and womens understandings of the causes of, and solutions to, what have been defined by service providers as mental health problems.The findings challenge Western biomedical approaches to dealing with prolonged grief and distress among migrant communities, which frequently reinforce disempowerment. We argue that it is the structural determinants of powerlessness that need to be addressed, rather than individual psyches. Colic-Peisker, V, and Tilbury, F, (2003) Active and Passive Resettlement: The Influence of Host Culture, Support Services, and Refugees Own Resources on the Choice of Resettlement Style. International Migration, 41 (5):61-91. This paper explores the process of resettlement among refugees in Australia. We propose four refugee resettlement styles as created through the interaction of a number of factors, including the social features of refugees, represented in their human, social and cultural capital, and the host societys responses to refugee settlers represented in its resettlement philosophy, policies and services. The argument developed in this paper is supported by data from two qualitative research projects conducted in Perth, Western Australia in 2001-2002. The fieldwork, consisting of interviews, focus groups and participant observation, targeted refugees from former Yugoslavia and Horn of Africa who arrived in Australia during the 1990s and 2000s, as well as refugee resettlement service providers. We argue that refugees approach their resettlement in predominantly active or passive ways and that these are differentially successful strategies. We argue against the excessive medicalisation of the refugee experience in the West as a factor that may incline refugees to adopt a passive victim role, and for a greater emphasis of culturally defined refugee priorities such as employment and stable housing. Published Conference Proceedings Tilbury, F (2007) The retreat from Multiculturalism: the Australian experience, Pluralism, Inclusion and Citizenship, 3rd Global Conference, Interdisciplinary.net, Salzburg, Nov, 2007, available at http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/ati/diversity/pluralism/pl3/Tilbury%20paper.pdf. Tilbury, F (2007) Because of our appearance we are always suspect: Religious discrimination in the Australian employment market, TASA/SAANZ (The Australian Sociological Association/Sociological Association of Aotearoa New Zealand) 2007 Conference Refereed Proceedings, CD Rom. Tilbury, F (2007) Calling Australia home: analysis of narratives of home on DIaCs citizenship testimonials website, TASA/SAANZ (The Australian Sociological Association/Sociological Association of Aotearoa New Zealand) 2007 Conference Refereed Proceedings, CD Rom. Tilbury, F (2006) Everything is excellent: methodological issues in studying refugee settlement, TASA (The Australian Sociological Association) 2006 Conference Refereed Proceedings, CD Rom. Torezani, S, Tilbury, F, and Colic-Peisker V (2006) Seeking jobs, finding networks: refugees perceptions of employment services, TASA (The Australian Sociological Association) 2006 Conference Refereed Proceedings, CD Rom. Tilbury, F, (2005) Meeting the needs of the market: employer justifications for discrimination in recruitment practices, Community Place and Change, TASA (The Australian Sociological Association) 2005 Conference Refereed Proceedings, CD Rom. Reports Val Colic-Peisker and Farida Tilbury (2006) Refugees and Employment: Investigating the Effect of Visible difference on Discrimination Research Project Final Report, Dec 2006  HYPERLINK "http://www.cscr.murdoch.edu.au/visible_difference_report.pdf" http://www.cscr.murdoch.edu.au/visible_difference_report.pdf Key findings High levels of unemployment among skilled refugees. Massive loss of occupational status among skilled refugees. Persistence of a segmented labour market, where racially and culturally visible migrants, and refugees in particular, despite their skills levels, are allocated unattractive jobs. Loss of human capital benefits to Australia, representing a waste of skills currently in short supply for example, among respondents doctors and engineers reported driving taxis, and teachers cleaning offices. Refugees face structural disadvantage in the labour market (e.g. non-recognition or part recognition of qualifications; lack of accessible referees). Discrimination on the basis of race, religion and ethnic origin plays a role in creating unsatisfactory employment outcomes. Employers discriminate on the basis of soft skills such as Australian cultural knowledge. Everyday street racism does not affect levels of life satisfaction as much as perceived discrimination in the labour market. Policy implications Data confirms a degree of disadvantage of skilled refugees in the labour market. There is a possibility that as a result, new and emerging African and Middle Eastern migrant communities may develop into marginalised minorities where social problems may crystallise over time, unless more decisive measures are introduced by policymakers, such as: Improvements to the national system of qualifications recognition in order to include greater regulation of professional organisations and registration boards. Coordination between professional registration boards and employment agencies could result in targeted professional training and work experience placements, especially in the areas of skill shortages. Employers should be made aware, through a public awareness campaign, of the benefits of diversity for their work environments and productivity. Employers should also be educated about what constitutes discrimination and the broader societal benefits of providing employment opportunities to minorities. In this respect, political leadership is also necessary to turn around the climate of hostility towards those who are different Muslims in particular Targeted employment seeking assistance for refugees and other at employment risk categories of immigrants (especially NESB) should be available. Ethnic diversity statistics should be kept in all companies with over one hundred employees, as in Canada, to raise awareness of diversity and target more equitable outcomes. The government should regulate this. Anti-discrimination agencies need to increase their public profile and be more proactive in encouraging people to report their grievances. Links between those providing services to NESB migrants and HREOC (Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission) may result in more cases coming to light. This may also have a preventative effect. Gallegos, D and Tilbury F (2006) Career Development Program for Refugee and Migrant Youth, Centre for Social and Community Research, Murdoch University, Perth. Available at  HYPERLINK "http://www.cscr.murdoch.edu.au/research.html#career_guidance" http://www.cscr.murdoch.edu.au/research.html#career_guidance Young people from refugee or refugee-like backgrounds come from a context where there may have been no concept of a career path, or where work, at best, is about having a job that pays, rather than a career that provides a sense of self fulfillment and other non-material rewards. The sorts of issues such youth have to contend with include: histories of torture or trauma, culture shock, language problems, lack of basic education, racism, lack of cultural competencies, financial challenges, and family disruption (include separation from family, or intergenerational conflict). Interviews with refugee young people, their families, teachers and service providers identified the following factors affecting the success of career development programs. Education is very important for many refugee families, and involvement of parents in processes of career guidance is vital. Many feel that refugee youth need to concentrate on acquiring language skills first and foremost. When ready for career development, it is vital client needs and existing skills are assessed. Often, specific skills will need developing, such as phone technique and resume writing. While existing career guidance support can be used, it must be tailored, and providers must have a good understanding of cross cultural issues. Focus groups research indicated the following. Those who wished to undertake professional occupations were aware of the need to go to university, and how to get there (through tertiary entrance exams), but did not know which universities offered the courses they were interested in. Most were unaware of traineeships, apprenticeships and the types of training TAFEs provide, and of specific alternative types of jobs related to an area of interest. Likewise most were unaware of where to find assistance with career development and relied on friends and family. In fact, the concept of career development was alien, and most were more focused on where to get information about jobs they identified newspapers, Job networks, TAFE, books, and the Internet/computer and going to workplaces. A school based Career Counselor, or teacher with special responsibility for career guidance, was seen as potentially useful, as were talks given by visiting speakers from various occupational backgrounds, and pamphlets providing information. It recommends consideration of the following issues in delivering career guidance. Appropriate methods of communication including use of interpreters or bilingual facilitators or peers; use of a variety of visual and non language intense methods of communication; use of appropriate terminology and concepts. Activities and information delivered by peers or people they can easily relate to, ie from a similar cultural background, will be well received. Styles of Learning People learn in a variety of ways and at different rates. Exposure to more than one way of learning a particular skill (eg. listening, visual, hands on and active involvement) produces better learning outcomes. Computer Literacy Young people from refugee backgrounds may have limited computer literacy, requiring assistance to use the bulk of career development material which tends to be available online. Computer literacy could be developed by developing partnerships with computer skills training programs. Employment versus Career Focus While government policy has moved away from a simple employment focus towards career development, this may be less relevant for young people from refugee backgrounds who may simply wish to access stable employment. Many have no experience of the Australian labour market and its recruitment and other systems (nor have their parents). An important feature of any career guidance program therefore is specific information and skills development relating to job seeking and gaining and maintaining employment. Developing networks and partnerships Young people generally, and refugee youth in particular, may be unaware of services available to them. Career packages must include awareness raising about the range of services and resources available, including the Migrant Resource Centres and JobNetwork, in order to ensure ongoing support. Time, commitment, continuity and relationships Integrating skills and knowledge take time. Programs should endeavor to provide continuity so that clients can develop career competencies over time. Mainstream service providers must be committed to supporting clients on an ongoing basis. Individualized service and support will produce the best outcomes. Family and community involvement Many refugee young people come from cultures where the collective is very important. Including family and community in career development is most likely to result in success. Successful community members may be used as part of the program. Recognition of refugee issues Young people from refugee backgrounds have often survived horrific circumstances. Now safe, they remain concerned for family and friends still in danger, and may themselves need ongoing counseling and support. They are also often called upon to support their families, both financially and emotionally, and also by sharing their culture skills such as acting as interpreters or assisting with everyday tasks parents may not have the skills for. Some have had little, or interrupted, schooling. Finally there is a clear tendency of refugee communities, once here, to self select into niche markets areas where one member of a community has found a job, and others follow. These are often in lower status and low security jobs such as taxi driving, aged care and security services. This brief outline gives an idea of some of the issues that must be taken into account when providing career guidance. Walker, I, Tilbury, F, Volet, S, Tungaraza, C, Hastie, B (2005) Pathways to Apprenticeships and Traineeships for People from Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds, Western Australian Department of Education and Training, Perth. Reasons for low levels of participation by people from culturally and linguistically diverse (CaLD) backgrounds in apprenticeships and traineeships were explored through interviews and surveys with community members and employers. Key issues identified include: Lack of knowledge. There was limited knowledge about what apprenticeships and traineeships were and how to access them for new migrants, as well of Australia workplace culture generally. It was also difficult to access information due to the complexity of the system. Discrimination and misunderstanding in the workplace (culture-clash): Many felt employers were unwilling to hire people from CaLD backgrounds and this was usually couched in terms of a lack of cultural-fit, although employers blamed lack of Australian workplace experience. Migrants see this is racism. Skills recognition: Many refugees had trouble getting their existing skills and qualifications recognised, which prevented them entering the workforce at an appropriate level. It also made them feel undervalued and created financial problems, both in having to take low skilled work and in having to pay for training to achieve Australian qualifications. Language ability: Current English language programs are considered to be inadequate, and an emphasis on funded vocationally-specific English to ease the transition to workplace has been suggested. Parental expectations: Most parents had high aspirations for their childrens futures, including university study and professional careers. This was seen as due to the sacrifices the parents had made by migrating to Australia to provide better educational and occupational opportunities. Status of trades: Many saw the occupations associated with apprenticeships and traineeships as being of lower status than those associated with university study. This was a major contributor to parental rejection of these as career options, and was based partly on the lower status of such occupations within the country of origin, but also attitudes within the broader Australian community. Recommended strategies to overcome these included: Increase access to knowledge for new migrants and parents: Information needs to be made more accessible to new migrants (location, content and format), and for parents, knowledge about outcomes, particularly career pathways, would be beneficial. CaLD community members should be involved in the dissemination of information. Improve skills recognition process: Flexible gap training should also be available to those whose skills fall short of the relevant competencies. Vocationally-specific English Raise status of trades: Efforts focused on the broader Australian community would be most efficacious, by encouraging greater participation among all groups. Expand Schools based programs: These provide exposure to workplaces where apprenticeships and traineeships occur, helping to create a norm of participation in these fields. Facilitated work experience: This would aid in overcoming the barriers of lack of knowledge about the world of work in Western Australia. It would also be beneficial in building wider social networks, which may lead to future employment, as well as increasing societal acceptance of new migrants. Tilbury, F, Clark, S, Slee, R, and OFerrall, I (2005) Listening to Diverse Voices Multicultural Mental Health Promotion Research Project Eritrean, Ethiopian, Somali and Sudanese communities in Western Australia, East Metropolitan Population Health Unit and Murdoch University, Perth, available at HYPERLINK "http://www.healthyfuture.health.wa.gov.au/"http://www.healthyfuture.health.wa.gov.au/ and  HYPERLINK "http://www.cscr.murdoch.edu.au/" http://www.cscr.murdoch.edu.au/. This web based resource provides a summary of key issues raised in research about depression among Horn of African communities. In a few pages for each national grouping, the main themes identified in the research are illustrated with extensive quotes from participants. Seah, E., Tilbury, F., Jayasuriya, P., Rooney, R., and Wright, B., (2001) The Cultural Awareness Tool: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Mental Health, Transcultural Mental Health Network, Perth. Available at http://www.mmha.org.au/mmha-products/books-and-resources/cultural-awareness-tool-cat The CAT is apractical guide which aims to provideguidance to primary care mental health practitioners in relation to providing culturally sensitive care.The tool is designed as a first step in developing cultural competence. Submitted articles Turner M and Fozdar F Negotiating Communities: Adult refugee and migrant students in Australia, Journal of Intercultural Studies, submitted May 30 2009. In culturally diverse Australian classrooms, the relationship between culture, community and learning has become a significant factor in educational outcomes. We argue teachers and service providers can assist migrant and refugee students by being mindful of the students negotiation of widening circles of community rather than by viewing the learning environment as independent of students orientation to community. Data for this article is derived from an abductive ethnographic study of adult South Sudanese engaged in three different Australian learning environments. The concepts of social capital, interdependent self construal and active versus passive settlement styles, are used to explore students sense of belonging to, and negotiation of, different communities. Participants perceived themselves to belong to an immediate ethnic group, a South Sudanese community, and the wider Australian community. 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